Fix admonitions in Karel and add C++ placeholders (#4)

algorithms/04-recursion/2022-11-29-karel-1.md

@@ -79,12 +79,15 @@ You can see an example of such map here:
 As a first step write down any ideas and things that you have noticed or came to
 your mind. Ideally:
 
-- Write down a nested list of the problems, e.g.
+1. Write down a nested list of the problems
+2. Write down list of problems that can happen
+3. Write down **anything** you consider important to solving the problem
 
-  :::info Example
+:::tip Example
 
-  Problem: I want to find out whether the display on smartphone should rotate.
+**Problem**: I want to find out whether the display on smartphone should rotate.
 
+- nested list of problems
   - Check if display has been rotated
     - Read data from some sensor
       - From what sensor
@@ -92,30 +95,16 @@ your mind. Ideally:
     - How do I communicate with the sensor?
     - What is the meaning of the data that I got?
     - How can I process it?
-
+- any problems that can happen
-  :::
-
-- Write down list of problems that can happen, e.g.
-
-  :::info Example continued
-
-  Following the same problem.
-
   - What if the sensor doesn't work?
   - What if the data doesn't conform to the specification?
   - What if my formulas are wrong?
-
+- anything important
-  :::
-
-- Write down **anything** you consider important to solving the problem, e.g.
-
-  :::info Example continued once again
-
   - I could probably use gyroscope.
   - I should probably look up the datasheet for that module.
   - I could write some tests to verify that my computations are correct.
 
-  :::
+:::
 
 ## »Rough« pseudocode
 
@@ -155,7 +144,9 @@ the ZIP-file, you can there:
 - `skeleton.py` - skeleton for your solution, needs to be put in the same directory
   as `karel_tk.py` and takes path to the world as a first argument, example usage:
 
+  ```
   $ python3 skeleton.py stairs.kw
+  ```
 
   - of course, this file can be renamed ;)
 

cpp/07-exceptions-and-raii/2023-11-24-placeholders.md

@@ -0,0 +1,205 @@
+---
+slug: placeholders
+title: Placeholders
+description: |
+  Placeholders that are quite convenient to use when working on the code.
+last_update:
+  date: 2023-11-24
+---
+
+Here we will try to implement some placeholders that you can find in other
+languages, but I miss them in the C++. I'm taking the inspiration from languages
+like Rust (all that we will implement) or Kotlin (`TODO`) that have them
+implemented.
+
+You may ask what placeholders do we need in the code, in our case we will be
+talking about TODOs and unexpected situations, such as not implemented branches.
+
+Namely we will implement
+
+- `todo`,
+- `unimplemented`, and
+- `unreachable`.
+
+## Design
+
+If we take the two languages mentioned above as examples, there are at least two
+ways how to implement them:
+
+1. _panic_ when they are reached (as they do in Rust), or
+2. _raise_ an exception when they are reached (as they do in Kotlin).
+
+I will choose raising an exception, since the closest equivalent of _panic_ in
+C++ would be `assert`s that are (by default) disabled in the _release builds_.
+
+However I am too lazy to do:
+
+```cpp
+throw todo();
+// or
+throw todo("optional note");
+```
+
+Therefore we will implement exceptions and also wrap them in functions, so that
+we can do:
+
+```cpp
+todo();
+// or
+todo("optional note");
+```
+
+:::tip
+
+Wrapping them in a function (or macro) will allow us to do a little magic trick.
+
+:::
+
+## Implementation
+
+We're going to utilize the exceptions, so we'll need to include the `exception`
+header and we will start with a simple `_todo` exception class.
+
+```cpp
+#include <exception>
+#include <string>
+
+class _todo : public std::exception {
+    std::string cause;
+
+   public:
+    _todo() : cause("not yet implemented") {}
+    _todo(std::string&& excuse) : cause("not yet implemented: " + excuse) {}
+    virtual const char* what() const throw() { return cause.c_str(); }
+};
+```
+
+In this case we have 2 constructors:
+
+1. default constructor without any parameters that will return just
+   `not yet implemented`
+2. and one parametrized with an “excuse” that will return string like:
+   `not yet implemented: ‹excuse›`
+
+If we were to use it now, we would need to do something like:
+
+```cpp
+#include "placeholders.hpp"
+
+int main() {
+    throw _todo();
+    return 0;
+}
+```
+
+## Wrapping in a function
+
+I am a lazy person, so we will wrap the exception in a function that will throw
+it:
+
+```cpp
+void todo() {
+    throw _todo();
+}
+```
+
+This can be used like:
+
+```cpp
+#include "placeholders.hpp"
+
+int main() {
+    todo();
+    return 0;
+}
+```
+
+## Magic trick
+
+At the beginning I've mentioned that by wrapping the exceptions in a helper
+functions that will throw them, we can do a nice magic trick :smile: This trick
+will consist of formatted string and for that we will use
+[`std::format`](https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/utility/format/format) that is
+available since C++20.
+
+We just need to add one more overload for our `todo()`:
+
+```cpp
+#include <format>
+
+template< class... Args >
+void todo(std::format_string<Args...> fmt, Args&&... args) {
+    throw _todo(std::format(fmt, args...));
+}
+```
+
+## Finishing off with 2 more exceptions
+
+Now we can repeat the same process for the other two exceptions I've mentioned
+
+- `unimplemented`, and
+- `unreachable`.
+
+In the end we should end up with something like this:
+
+```cpp
+#include <exception>
+#include <format>
+#include <string>
+
+class _todo : public std::exception {
+    std::string cause;
+
+   public:
+    _todo() : cause("not yet implemented") {}
+    _todo(std::string&& excuse) : cause("not yet implemented: " + excuse) {}
+    virtual const char* what() const throw() { return cause.c_str(); }
+};
+
+void todo() { throw _todo(); }
+
+template <class... Args>
+void todo(std::format_string<Args...> fmt, Args&&... args) {
+    throw _todo(std::format(fmt, args...));
+}
+
+class _unimplemented : public std::exception {
+    std::string cause;
+
+   public:
+    _unimplemented() : cause("not implemented") {}
+    _unimplemented(std::string&& excuse)
+        : cause("not implemented: " + excuse) {}
+    virtual const char* what() const throw() { return cause.c_str(); }
+};
+
+void unimplemented() { throw _unimplemented(); }
+
+template <class... Args>
+void unimplemented(std::format_string<Args...> fmt, Args&&... args) {
+    throw _unimplemented(std::format(fmt, args...));
+}
+
+class _unreachable : public std::exception {
+    std::string cause;
+
+   public:
+    _unreachable() : cause("entered unreachable code") {}
+    _unreachable(std::string&& excuse)
+        : cause("entered unreachable code: " + excuse) {}
+    virtual const char* what() const throw() { return cause.c_str(); }
+};
+
+void unreachable() { throw _unreachable(); }
+
+template <class... Args>
+void unreachable(std::format_string<Args...> fmt, Args&&... args) {
+    throw _unreachable(std::format(fmt, args...));
+}
+```
+
+:::info
+
+Final source code: [`placeholders.hpp`](pathname:///files/cpp/exceptions-and-raii/placeholders/placeholders.hpp)
+
+:::

cpp/07-exceptions-and-raii/_category_.yml

@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+label: Exceptions and RAII
+link:
+  type: generated-index
+  description: |
+    Materials related to the exceptions or RAII in C++.

static/files/cpp/exceptions-and-raii/placeholders/placeholders.hpp

@@ -0,0 +1,77 @@
+#include <exception>
+#include <format>
+#include <string>
+
+class _todo : public std::exception {
+    std::string cause;
+
+   public:
+    _todo() : cause("not yet implemented") {}
+    _todo(std::string&& excuse) : cause("not yet implemented: " + excuse) {}
+    virtual const char* what() const throw() { return cause.c_str(); }
+};
+
+/**
+ * @brief Indicates unfinished code.
+ */
+void todo() { throw _todo(); }
+
+/**
+ * @brief Indicates unfinished code.
+ * @param fmt an object that represents the format string
+ * @param args arguments to be formatted
+ */
+template <class... Args>
+void todo(std::format_string<Args...> fmt, Args&&... args) {
+    throw _todo(std::format(fmt, args...));
+}
+
+class _unimplemented : public std::exception {
+    std::string cause;
+
+   public:
+    _unimplemented() : cause("not implemented") {}
+    _unimplemented(std::string&& excuse)
+        : cause("not implemented: " + excuse) {}
+    virtual const char* what() const throw() { return cause.c_str(); }
+};
+
+/**
+ * @brief Indicates unimplemented code by throwing with a message of “not implemented”.
+ */
+void unimplemented() { throw _unimplemented(); }
+
+/**
+ * @brief Indicates unimplemented code by throwing with a message of “not implemented”.
+ * @param fmt an object that represents the format string
+ * @param args arguments to be formatted
+ */
+template <class... Args>
+void unimplemented(std::format_string<Args...> fmt, Args&&... args) {
+    throw _unimplemented(std::format(fmt, args...));
+}
+
+class _unreachable : public std::exception {
+    std::string cause;
+
+   public:
+    _unreachable() : cause("entered unreachable code") {}
+    _unreachable(std::string&& excuse)
+        : cause("entered unreachable code: " + excuse) {}
+    virtual const char* what() const throw() { return cause.c_str(); }
+};
+
+/**
+ * @brief Indicates unreachable code.
+ */
+void unreachable() { throw _unreachable(); }
+
+/**
+ * @brief Indicates unreachable code.
+ * @param fmt an object that represents the format string
+ * @param args arguments to be formatted
+ */
+template <class... Args>
+void unreachable(std::format_string<Args...> fmt, Args&&... args) {
+    throw _unreachable(std::format(fmt, args...));
+}

static/files/cpp/exceptions-and-raii/placeholders/test.cpp

@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+#include "placeholders.hpp"
+
+int main() {
+  todo("finish later ({})", "in 3 days");
+  return 0;
+}